A
accelerando. A gradual increase in tempo, making the music progressively faster.
accent. A note or beat that is emphasized or played louder than others, often creating a sense of rhythmic variation.
accidental. Symbols which alter the pitch of a note.
♭ Flat Lowers the pitch by a semitone
♯ Sharp Raises the pitch by a semitone
When an accidental appears in front of a pitch, it will then apply to all pitches of the same letter in that bar. A barline cancels out any accidentals which have appeared in the bar before it.
However, sometimes there is a need to cancel out an accidental before a barline. For this we use a natural symbol.
♮ Natural Cancels out a previous accidental
Any note which has not been modified by an accidental (i.e. A, B, C, D, E, F, G) may be called either by just its letter or by the letter plus “natural”:
A = A♮ = A natural
B = B♮ = B natural
C = C♮ = C natural
… i.e. the ♮ natural symbol doesn’t change the pitch - it just cancels out a ♭ or ♯.
Sometimes, in order to remind you that an accidental has been cancelled, a ♮ natural symbol will appear after a barline, where it’s not strictly necessary. This is called a courtesy accidental.
You may occasionally come across double sharps and double flats, which raise or lower the pitch by two semitones respectively.
appoggiatura A type of ornamentation where a non-chord tone is approached by a leap and resolved by a step to a chord tone, typically adding tension.
approach tones. Notes either a semitone or tone either side of chord tones, when used specifically to approach that chord tone, for a smooth melodic line.
arpeggio. A sequence of notes which spells out a chord. Usually, the 1st, 3rd, 5th and 8th notes of a scale.
articulation. The way in which notes are played or sung, affecting their attack, duration, and release. Common articulations include staccato (short and detached), legato (smooth and connected), and accent (emphasized note).
B
bar. A segment of time in a piece of music defined by a specific number of beats, usually indicated by vertical lines called barlines. Each bar helps organize the rhythm of a piece.
barline. A vertical line drawn on the staff to separate measures (bars). Barlines help define the structure of the music and organize the beats within each bar.
beam. When two quavers (or shorter durations) occur within the same beat, their hanging, curved tails are joined up into a straight beam.
beat. The regular, repeating pulse of a piece of music. Each pulse is a “beat”. Each beat is assigned a number according to its position within the bar. In a bar of 4/4, the beats are numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4.
C
cadence. A two- or three-chord formula that ends a phrase or section; “musical punctuation”.
chord tones. the 3 or 4 notes essential to the sound of a particular chord.
chorus (jazz). not a specific refrain (as in a pop song), but a term referring to the whole chord sequence of the head, i.e.: if the head is 12-bars long (as in Bags’ Groove), then each chorus is 12-bars long. In the solo section, each soloist typically plays a round number of choruses - one, two, three, or more. A soloist usually shouldn’t end their solo before they reach the end of the chorus they are playing.
chromatic. A musical term referring to the use of all twelve pitches in the Western music system, including all sharps and flats. It can also describe a scale or melody that includes semitones between each note.
coda (jazz). an extra bit on the end of an arrangement which (typically) extends the out head to create a more satisfying sense of completion. E.g. an arrangement, has a coda at the end in which the final phrase of the head melody gets repeated 3 times (a common type of coda), making the out head 17, not 12 bars (if you prefer, you can think of the out head as being a standard 12 bar chorus plus a 5-bar coda, but it ends of meaning the same thing.
consonance. A combination of notes that sound harmonious and stable, often used to provide resolution after dissonance.
countermelody. A secondary melody that accompanies the primary melody. It can be independent but is often harmonically related to the main melody.
crochet. A musical note that lasts for one beat in a time signature where the quarter note ♩ is the unit of time.
D
diatonic. Within the prevailing key/chord. Relating to the notes of a standard major or minor scale, which contain no chromatic alterations (sharps or flats outside the key signature).
dissonance. A combination of notes that create harmonic tension or a sense of instability, often requiring resolution to consonance.
division. A unit of time, dividing a passage of time into equal units (divisions). The beat is a type of division, but divisions can be shorter than a beat (subdivisions) or longer than a beat (superdivisions). Distinct from rhythm, in which divisions are combined into durations which can be unequal in length.
dominant. the 5th note in the scale of the prevailing key. In ‘Swonderful, the melody starts on the dominant note, which in the key of B♭ is F. Many melodies start on the dominant, including Happy Birthday, Away in A Manger and the US national anthem (The Star-Spangled Banner).
dominant (chord). The 5th note of a key-scale (and the chord formed on it). The chord is labelled “V”.
downbeat. The first, usually heaviest-feeling, beat of a bar, i.e. beat 1.
duration. The various units of time created by combining divisions. Rhythms are made from using various durations over a passage of time. Examples include semibreves w, minims h, crotchets q, quavers e, and semiquavers s.
dynamics. The volume of sound in music, indicating how loud or soft a passage should be played, and changes in volume. Common dynamic markings include piano (soft), forte (strong/loud), crescendo (gradually getting louder), and decrescendo or diminuendo (gradually getting softer).
E
embouchure. the collection of lip and facial muscles used to play a wind or brass instrument.
enharmonic equivalents. Many notes (in fact all, but let’s not get in too deep here) can be spelled in more than one way, but sound the same. E.g., between the notes C and D (C♮ and D♮), there is a note which can be written either as C♯ or as D♭. Whether you write it as C♯ or as D♭ depends on various factors including the key of the piece of music. What’s important is this: these are two ways of labelling the same sound, and are played in exactly the same way.
Notes which are spelled differently but sound identical are called enharmonic equivalents.
C♯ = D♭
D♯ = E♭
F♯ = G♭ etc.
extenstion(s). notes which are diatonic to a chord but are not chord tones
F
fermata. (pause) A symbol indicating that a note or rest should be held longer than its usual value, often at the discretion of the performer or conductor.
flat. ♭ A symbol which lowers a pitch by one semitone. This symbol is a type of accidental.
G
glissando. A continuous slide between two pitches, typically performed on a string or keyboard instrument.
guide tones. two notes associated with a given chord which capture its essential harmonic quality. Usually these are the 3rd and 7th of a chord (a 3rd and 7th interval above its root). The use of these guide tones melodically serves to guide the melody through the harmony smoothly.
H
half-step. See semitone.
harmonic series. On each valve or slide position, the set of possible (stable) notes. The pattern of intervals between these notes is the same in every valve/slide position. Every length of tubing (or string) has a fundamental frequency: the harmonics are the whole-number multiples of this frequency. The words partial and overtone are sometimes used in music literature; their technical meaning is slightly different, but, for our purposes, the difference is not very significant.
head (jazz). The main melody. Very often played at or near the beginning (the in head) and again at or near the end of the arrangement (the out head).
hemiola. A rhythmic pattern where two beats are divided into three, creating a shift in meter or rhythmic feel.
I
inner ear. When musicians refer to this, we generally mean it as a metaphor for the brain's ability to "hear" sounds in our imaginations. We're not referring to the literal inner parts of ear anatomy. Training the inner ear to "hear" music accurately and reliably is a key skill for sight reading, ensemble playing and general musicianship.
interval. The distance between two pitches, whether sounded simultaneously (harmonic interval), or sequentially (melodic interval). Intervals are always Intervals are named in two parts: the number describes the span of letters (e.g. C→E spans C, D and E, so is called a "third"; and a quality, described as major, minor, perfect, augmented, or diminished.
J
K
key. The tonal center of a piece of music, determined by its key signature. It defines the scale upon which the piece is based and provides a sense of resolution and tension.
key scale. The scale which contains the notes of a particular key, arranged so that the tonic of that key is the tonic of that scale. E.g. in the key of F Major, the key-scale is the scale of F Major.
key signature. A set of sharps or flats at the beginning of a piece of music that indicates the key of the music. It helps identify which notes are to be played as sharps or flats throughout the piece.
L
leap. A movement from one note to another that is more than a step apart, often spanning several notes in a scale.
ledger line. A short horizontal line above or below the five lines of the stave, allowing notes which are higher or lower than those in the stave to be written.
legato. A smooth, connected style of playing or singing where notes are performed without noticeable breaks between them.
M
mediant. the 3rd note in the scale of the prevailing key. In major keys, the mediant is a major 3rd above the tonic (4 semitones above), whereas in minor keys it is a minor 3rd above the tonic (3 semitones above). Melodies which start on the mediant (major key) include Swing Low, Sweet Chariot, I’ll Fly Away and Deep River. Melodies which start on the mediant (minor key) include Carnival de Paris (key of Cm) and They Don’t Really Care About Us (key of Dm). Greensleeves starts on the tonic, but the second note is the minor mediant.
minim. A musical note that lasts for two beats in a time signature where the quarter note (1/4 note) is the unit of time. It is also known as a half note.
mode tones. The notes in between the chord tones which, when combined with them, create a scale.
modulating/modulation. A change of key (i.e. a change of tonic) in a piece of music. Classically, this is achieved via a pivot chord (a chord common to both keys). It requires a cadence in the new key, most typically a perfect cadence.
mordent. A musical ornament that involves rapidly alternating between a note and its immediate neighbor (either above or below) in pitch.
musical alphabet. The seven letters used in notated music: A, B, C, D, E, F, G. Ascending through them (going up in pitch), after G is another A, with the sequence restarting in the next octave.
N
neapolitan chord. A major chord built on the flattened second scale degree of a key, often used in classical music to create a strong sense of resolution when followed by the dominant.
O
offbeat. The half-way point between two beats. Usually (although not always) this corresponds to the 2nd quaver of a pair of quavers. Labeled with a “+” (spoken “and”), so each beat consists of a number on the beat and an + on the offbeat. E.g. the offbeat of beat one is called the "and-of-one".
ostinato. A repeated musical pattern, often used as a foundational element in a piece, either in melody or rhythm.
P
passing notes. A passing note links two main melody notes, traveling only by step. Steps may be semitones or tones.
In example A, the main melody notes E and G can be linked with a passing note of F.
E → F = semitone
F → G = tone
In example B, the main melody notes C and D can be linked with a passing note of C♯
C → C♯ = semitone
C♯ → D = semitone
pause. (fermata). A symbol indicating that a note or rest should be held longer than its usual value, often at the discretion of the performer or conductor.
pentatonic (scale). a scale made of 5 notes. More specifically, a major pentatonic is degrees 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 of a major scale, and a minor pentatonic is degrees 1, 3, 4, 5 and 7 of a (natural) minor scale. E.g. F major pentatonic is F-G-A-C-D and D minor pentatonic is D-F-G-A-C.
perfect cadence. within a given key, the use of a chord rooted on the 5th degree of the key-scale (chord V), followed by the chord rooted on the 1st degree of the key-scale (chord I), when used as the final two chords of musical phrase. I.e. V-I
(Extremely) common variants include:
V7→I
IIm7→V7→I
II7→V7→I
IIm7(b5)→V7→I
IIm7(b5)→V7(b9)→I
phrase. A complete musical statement. Most phrases will be 2, 4 or 8-bars in length. Sometimes a larger phrase will have two part- or sub-phrases making up the two halves, e.g. 2+2 in a 4-bar phrase.
In most cases, you should play each phrase in one breath, and breathe at the end of each phrase (when phrases are particularly short, you might play two in one breath). When working on a piece, work on each phrase as a separate statement, initially, then stitch them together, rather than always starting at the beginning of the piece.
pitch. The percieved "highness" or "lowness" of a sound. Most musical sounds (with the exception of some percussion) have a very distinct pitch, or in the case of chords, consist of multiple identifiable pitches. Pitches are labelled with letters A through G (the musical alphabet), with or without accidentals.
portamento. A smooth, sliding transition from one note to another, often used in vocal and string performances.
Q
quaver. A musical note that lasts for half a beat in a time signature where the crotchet (quarter note) is the unit of time. It is also known as an eighth note. Single: e grouped: ee, eee, eeee . Rest: rrrr
R
rest. A symbol used in music to indicate a period of silence for a specific duration. The length of the rest corresponds to the length of a note. Examples: r rr rrr rrrr rrrrr
rhythm. The organisation of sounds (durations) and silences (rests) in music.
ritardando. (rit.) A gradual decrease in tempo, making the music progressively slower.
roman chord notation. referring to chords with Roman numerals equivalent to the scale degree upon which the chord is rooted. E.g. in the key of F Major, the chord of C is referred to as chord V.
root. the home note of a prevailing chord.
S
scale. A sequence of notes proceeding by step (intervals of a 2nd) , typically spanning an octave, which can be ascending or descending. Common types include major, minor, and chromatic scales.
scale degree. referring to notes by their position in a scale, e.g. in F Major, the 1st degree is F, the 2nd degree is G, the third degree is A etc.
semibreve. A musical note that lasts for four beats in a time signature where the crotchet (quarter note) is the unit of time. It is also known as a whole note. w
semiquaver. A musical note that lasts for one quarter of a beat in a time signature where the crotchet (quarter note) is the unit of time (4/4, 3/4, 2/4 etc.). It is also known as an sixteenth note. Single: s grouped: ss, sss, ssss, ssssss rest: rrrrr
semitone. In Western/European musical styles, the smallest significant difference in pitch between two different notes. On a piano keyboard, the distance between any two immediately adjacent notes; on a guitar fretboard, the distance between any two immediately adjacent frets on the same string. Also known as a half-step.
slur. A curved line placed over or under two or more notes, indicating that they should be played smoothly without a break between them.
staccato. A style of playing or singing where each note is played in a short, detached manner, with a distinct separation between notes.
stave (or staff). The five parallel, horizontal lines on which music is notated. The vertical direction describes pitch; the horizontal direction describes time. Can be temporarily extended vertically (above or below) through the use of ledger lines.
step. A movement from one note to an adjacent note in a scale, typically either a whole step (two semitones) or a half step (one semitone).
stretto. A term used in music to indicate a faster tempo, often in the context of a fugue, where the theme is presented in close imitation by the voices.
solo (jazz). A section usually between the in head and the out head, in which one or more players improvises over the same chord sequence as that used for the head, but without the main melody being played.
sostenuto. A term used to indicate that notes should be held or sustained for a longer duration than usual, often creating a smooth, legato effect.
subdivision (and superdivision). A technique for tracking time in music in which each beat is mentally divided into two or more divisions of equal length. "Subdivision" refers to dividing the beat into equal divisions shorter than one beat; "superdivision" refers to combining beats into equal divisions longer than one beat. E.g. in 4/4 each q beat can be subdivided into eight e divisions equal to half a beat each, or superdivided into two h divisions equal to two beats each. The four which coincide with the q beats are labeled with the number of the beat they occur on, and the other four (the offbeats) are labelled as the "and" of the numbered beat immediately preceding them.
So, q q q q = 1 2 3 4 = eeee eeee = 1+2+3+4+
subdominant. The fourth note of a scale, often used to create a sense of movement and preparation for the dominant.
syncopation. The rhythmic effect where accents are placed on weaker beats or off-beats, creating a sense of rhythmic surprise or tension.
T
tempo. The speed at which a piece of music is played. It is usually indicated by terms like allegro (fast), andante (moderate), and adagio (slow), or by a metronome marking (beats per minute).
tetrachord. a chord with four notes, most commonly arranged as a 3rd, 5th and 7th above a root note. The root note gives the tetrachord its letter name (e.g. Eb), and the quality of intervals of the other notes give it its type/quality.
time signature. A symbol consisting of two stacked numbers at the beginning of a piece of music that indicates the number of beats in each measure and the note value that gets the beat. Common examples are 4/4, 3/4, and 6/8.
tone colour/timbre. The characteristic quality or color of a musical sound that distinguishes it from other sounds. It is determined by the instrument, the technique of the performer, and other factors.
tonic. the home note of the prevailing key (and the 1st note in the scale of that key); the centre of harmonic gravity. If you can’t find the tonic from the key signature alone, a strong clue is the very last note of the melody. It is very often the tonic of the piece. Many melodies also start on the tonic, including When The Saints Go Marchin’ In, Blackbird (Beatles) and the British national anthem (God Save the King/Queen).
tonic (chord). The 1st note of a key-scale (and the chord formed on it). The chord is labelled “I”.
tonicisation [tonicization]. Suggesting a modulation without actually cadencing in the new key; treating a pitch other than the tonic as a temporary tonic. This is done by using the dominant of the tonicised key. E.g. in Shipbuilding, the G7(13) chord is the dominant chord of Cmajor, but the phrase doesn’t cadence in C, so C is tonicised, rather than modulated to.
trill. A rapid alternation between two adjacent notes, typically one step or a half step apart, creating a fluttering effect.
turn. A type of ornament that involves four notes: the note above, the note, the note below, and the note again.
U
unison. The interval which describes the sound of two notes of identical pitch.
V
vibrato. A slight variation in pitch that occurs when a note is sung or played with a slight, controlled oscillation, often used to add expressiveness to a performance.
voice leading. the practice of arranging chord tones (or indeed other notes) so that they flow smoothly and melodically through a chord sequence, by primarily moving by step, with only occasional leaps.